Active AGI Projects

Posted on October 30, 2019August 1, 2022 by seanclauson

This is a listing of projects/companies working in Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). This list will grow as I come across additional projects.

ACT-R, led by John Anderson of Carnegie Mellon University
AERA, led by Kristinn Thórisson of Reykjavik University
AIDEUS, led by Alexey Potapov of ITMO University and Sergey Rodionov of Aix Marseille Université
AIXI, led by Marcus Hutter of Australian National University
Alice in Wonderland, led by Claes Stannegård of Chalmers University of Technology
Animats, a small project recently initiated by researchers in Sweden, Switzerland, and the US
Baidu Research, an AI research group within Baidu
Becca, an open-source project led by Brandon Rohrer
Blue Brain, led by Henry Markram of École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
China Brain Project, led by Mu-Ming Poo of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
CLARION, led by Ron Sun of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
CogPrime, an open source project led by Ben Goertzel based in the US and with dedicated labs in Hong Kong and Addis Ababa
CommAI, a project of Facebook AI Research based in New York City and with offices in Menlo Park, California and Paris
Cyc, a project of Cycorp of Austin, Texas, began by Doug Lenat in 1984
DeepMind, a London-based AI company acquired by Google in 2014 for $650m
DeSTIN, led by Itamar Arel of University of Tennessee
DSO-CA, led by Gee Wah Ng of DSO National Laboratories, which is Singapore’s primary national defense research agency
FLOWERS, led by Pierre-Yves Oudeyer of Inria and David Filliat of Ensta ParisTech
GoodAI, an AI company based in Prague led by computer game entrepreneur Marek Rosa
HTM, a project of the AI company Numenta, based in Redwood City, California and led by Jeffrey Hawkins, founder of Palm Computing
Human Brain Project, a consortium of research institutions across Europe with $1 billion in funding from the European Commission
Icarus, led by Pat Langley of Stanford University
Leabra, led by Randall O-Reilly of University of Colorado
LIDA, led by Stan Franklin of University of Memphis
Maluuba, a company based in Montreal recently acquired by Microsoft
MicroPsi, led by Joscha Bach of Harvard University
Microsoft Research AI, a group at Microsoft announced in July 2017
MLECOG, led by Janusz Starzyk of Ohio University
NARS, led by Pei Wang of Temple University
Nigel, a project of Kimera, an AI company based in Portland, Oregon
NNAISENSE, an AI company based in Lugano, Switzerland and led by Jürgen Schmidhuber
OpenAI, a nonprofit AI research organization based in San Francisco and founded by several prominent technology investors who have pledged $1 billion
Real AI, an AI company based in Hong Kong and led by Jonathan Yan
Research Center for Brain-Inspired Intelligence (RCBII), a project of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Sigma, led by Paul Rosenbloom of University of Southern California
SiMA, led by Dietmar Dietrich of Vienna University of Technology
SingularityNET, an open AI platform led by Ben Goertzel
SNePS, led by Stuart Shapiro at State University of New York at Buffalo
Soar, led by John Laird of University of Michigan and a spinoff company SoarTech
Susaro, an AI company based in the Cambridge, UK area and led by Richard Loosemore
Tencent AI Lab, the AI group of Tencent
Uber AI Labs, the AI research division of Uber
Vicarious, an AI company based in San Francisco
Victor, a project of 2AI, which is a subsidiary of Cifer Inc., a small US company
Whole Brain Architecture Initiative (WBAI), a nonprofit in Tokyo

References:

Baum, Seth, A Survey of Artificial General Intelligence Projects for Ethics, Risk, and Policy (November 12, 2017). Global Catastrophic Risk Institute Working Paper 17-1 . Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3070741 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3070741

References: Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies

Posted on October 29, 2019October 30, 2019 by seanclauson

The following is a list of references pulled from Douglas Hofstadter’s 1995 book, “Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought”.

The list is being copied for future study, and will be updated with links to papers (as time permits).

Aitchison, Jean (1994). Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. [Link]
Albers, Donald, Gerald L. Alexanderson, and Constance Reid, eds. (1990). More Mathematical People. San Diego: Harcourt Brace.
Anderson, John R. (1983). The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Link]
Arnold, Henri and Bob Lee (1982). Jumble #21. New York: Signet (New American Library).

Belpatto, Guglielmo Egidio (1890). “L’ipertraduzione esemplificata nel dominio di analogie geografiche“. Rivista inesistente di filoscioccosofia, vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 324-271.
Bergerson, Howard (1973). Palindromes and Anagrams. New York: Dover. [Link]
Blesser, Barry et al. (1973). “Character Recognition Based on Phenomenological Attributes“. Visible Language, vol. 7, no. 3. [Link]
Bobrow, Daniel and Bertram Raphael (1974). “New Programming Languages for AI Research“. Computing Surveys, vol. 6, no. 3. [Link]
Boden, Margaret A. (1977). Artificial Intelligence and Natural Man. New York: Basic Books. [Link]
Boden, Margaret A. (1991). The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms. New York: Basic Books. [Link]
Bongard, Mikhail (1970). Pattern Recognition. Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden (Spartan Books).
Boole, George (1855). The Laws of Thought. New York: Dover. [Link]
Bruner, Jerome (1957). “On Perceptual Readiness“. Psychological Review, vol. 64, pp.123-152. [Link]
Burstein, Mark (1986). “Concept Formation by Incremental Analogical Reasoning and Debugging“. In Michalski, Carbonell, & Mitchell, 1986, pp. 351-369. [Link]

Carbonell, Jaime G. (1983). “Learning by Analogy: Formulating and Generalizing Plans from Past Experience“. In Michalski, Carbonell, & Mitchell, 1983, pp. 137-162. [Link]
Chapman, D. (1991). Vision, Instruction, and Action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [Link]
Conrad, Michael et al. (1989). “Towards an Artificial Brain“. BioSystems, vol. 23, pp. 175-218. [Link]
Cutler, Anne, ed. (1982). Slips of the Tongue and Language Production. Berlin: Mouton. [Link]

Defays, Daniel (1988). L’esprit en friche: Les foisonnements de l’intelligence artificielle. Liege, Belgium: Pierre Mardaga.
Dell, Gary S. and P. A. Reich (1980). “Slips of the Tongue: The Facts and a Stratificational Model“. In J. E. Copeland & P. W. Davis (eds.), Papers in Cognitive-Stratificational Linguistics, vol. 66, pp. 611-629. Houston: Rice University Studies. [Link]
Dennett, Daniel C. (1978). Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology. Montgomery, VT: Bradford Books. [Link]
Dennett, Daniel C. (1991). “Real Patterns“. Journal of Philosophy, vol. 89, pp. 27-51. [Link]
Dowker, Ann et al. (1995). “Estimation Strategies of Four Groups“. To appear in Mathematical Cognition, vol. 1, no. 1. [Link]
Dreyfus, Hubert (1979). What Computers Can’t Do (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row. [Link]

Elman, Jeffrey L. (1990). “Finding Structure in Time“. Cognitive Science, vol. 14, pp. 179-212. [Link]
Erman, Lee D. et al. (1980). “The Hearsay-II Speech-Understanding System: Integrating Knowledge to Resolve Uncertainty“. Computing Surveys, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 213-253. [Link]
Ernst, G. W. and Allen Newell (1969). GPS: A Case Study in Generality and Problem Solving. New York: Academic Press. [Link]
Evans, Thomas G. (1968). “A Program for the Solution of Geometric-Analogy Intelligence-Test Questions“. In Marvin Minsky (ed.), Semantic Information Processing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Falkenhainer, Brian, Kenneth D. Forbus, and Dedre Gentner (1990). “The Structure-Mapping Engine“. Artificial Intelligence, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 1-63. [Link]
Feldman, Jerome and Dana H. Ballard (1982). “Connectionist Models and Their Properties“. Cognitive Science, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 205-254. [Link]
Fennell, R. D. and Victor R. Lesser (1975). “Parallelism in AI Problem Solving: A Case Study of Hearsay II“. Technical Report, Computer Science Department, Carnegie-Mellon University. Reprinted in Reddy et al., 1976. Also published in IEEE Transactions on Computer, vol. C-26 (February, 1977), pp. 98-111. [Link]
Fodor, Jerry A. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press. [Link]
French, Robert M. (1990). “Subcognition and the Limits of the Turing Test“. Mind, vol. 99, no. 393, pp. 53-65. [Link]
French, Robert M. (1992). “Tabletop: An Emergent, Stochastic Computer Model of Analogy-making.” Doctoral dissertation, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Michigan. [Link]
French, Robert M. (1995). Tabletop: An Emergent, Stochastic Computer Model of Analogy-making. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press. [Link]
French, Robert M. and Jacqueline Henry (1988). “La traduction en francais des jeux linguistiques de Godel, Escher, Bach“. Meta, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 133-142.
French, Robert M. and Douglas R. Hofstadter (1991). “Tabletop: A Stochastic, Emergent Model of Analogy-making“. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 708-713. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
French, Scott R. and Hal (1993). Just This Once. New York: Birch Lane Press, Carol Publishing Group.
Fromkin, Victoria A., ed. (1980). Errors in Linguistic Performance: Slips of the Tongue, Ear, Pen, and Hand. New York: Academic Press. [Link]

Gaillat, G. and M. Berthod (1979). “Panorama des techniques d’extraction de traits caracteristiques en lecture de caracteres“. Revue technique Thomson-CSF, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 943-959.
Gentner, Dedre (1983). “Structure-mapping: A Theoretical Framework for Analogy“. Cognitive Science, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 155-170. [Link]
Gick, Mary L. and Keith J. Holyoak (1983). “Schema Induction and Analogical Transfer“. cognitive Psychology, vol. 15, pp. 1-38. [Link]
Grebert, Igor et al. (1991). “Connectionist Generalization for Production: An Example from GridFont“. In Proceedings of the 1991 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks. [Link]
Grebert, Igor et al. (1992). “Connectionist Generalization for Production: An Example from GridFont“. Neural Networks, vol. 5, pp. 699-710. [Link]
Guha, R. V. and Douglas B. Lenat (1994). “Enabling Agents to Work Together“. Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 127-142. [Link]

Hall, R. P. (1989). “Computational Approaches to Analogical Reasoning“. Artificial Intelligence, vol. 39, pp. 39-120. [Link]
Hanson, A. and E. Riseman, eds. (1978). Computer Vision Systems. New York: Academic Press. [Link]
Harnad, Stevan (1989). “Minds, Machines, and Searle“. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, vol. 1, pp. 5-25. [Link]
Harnad, Stevan (1990). “The Symbol Grounding Problem“. Physica D, vol. 42, pp. 335-346.
Hebb, Donald O. (1948). The Organization of Behavior. New York: John Wiley.
Hewitt, Carl (1985). “The Challenge of Open Systems“. Byte, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 223-242.
Hinton, Geoffrey E. and James A. Anderson, eds. (1981). Parallel Models of Associative Memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hinton, Geoffrey E. and James A. Anderson, eds. (1986). “Learning and Relearning in Boltzmann Machines“. In Rumelhart, McClelland, and the PDP Research Group, 1986, pp. 282-317.
Hinton, Geoffrey E., Christopher K. I. Williams, and Michael D. Revow (1992). “Adaptive Elastic Models for Hand-Printed Character Recognition“. Talk presented at the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Chicago, Illinois, 1991. Also in the Neuroprose archives.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1976). “Energy levels and wave functions of Bloch electrons in rational and irrational magnetic fields“. Physical Review B, vol. 14, no. 6.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1979). Godel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid. New York: Basic Books.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1981). “Metamagical Themas: How might analogy, the core of human thinking, be understood by computers?“. Scientific American, vol. 245, no. 3, pp. 18-30. Reprinted as Chapter 24 of Hofstadter, 1985.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1982a). “Metafont, Metamathematics, and Metaphysics: Comments on Donald Knuth’s Article ‘The Concept of a Meta-Font’“. Visible Language, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 309-338. Reprinted as Chapter 13 of Hofstadter, 1985.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1982b). “Metamagical Themas: Can inspiration be mechanized“. Scientific American, vol. 247, no. 3, pp. 18-34. Reprinted as Chapter 23 of Hofstadter, 1985.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1982c). “Metamagical Themas: Variations on a theme as the essence of imagination“. Scientific American, vol. 247, no. 4, pp. 20-29. Reprinted as Chapter 12 of Hofstadter, 1985.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1982d). “Artificial Intelligence: Subcognition as Computation“, in F. Machlup and U. Mansfield (eds.), The Study of Information. New York: John Wiley. Reprinted as Chapter 26 of Hofstadter, 1985.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1982e). “Who Shoves Whom Around inside the Careenium?” Synthese, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 189-218. Reprinted as Chapter 25 of Hofstadter, 1985.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1983a). “The Architecture of Jumbo“, in Ryszard Michalski, Jaime Carbonell, and Thomas Mitchell (eds.), Proceedings of the International Machine Learning Workshop, pp. 161-170. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois. Expanded version printed as Chapter 2 of the present book.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1983b). “On Seeking Whence“. Publication #5, Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University, Bloomington.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1984a). “The Copycat Project: An Experiment in Nondeterminism and Creative Analogies“. AI Memo 755, MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1984b). “Simple and Not-so-simple Analogies in the Copycat Domain“. Publication #9, Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1985). Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern. New York: Basic Books.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1986). “Dreams of a Magical Shield” (“My Turn” column), Newsweek, March 3, 1986, p. 8.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1987a). Ambigrammi: Un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creativita. Forence: Hopeful Monster.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1987b). “Introduction to the Letter Spirit Project and to the Idea of ‘Gridfonts’“. Publication #17, Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University, Bloomington.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1987c). “La recherche de l’essence entre le medium et le message“. Protee, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 13-31. Also available in English through the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University, Bloomington.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1988a). “Common Sense and Conceptual Halos” (reply to Paul Smolensky’s target article “On the Proper Treatment of Connectionism”). Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. II. no. 1, pp. 35-37.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1988b). “Doughalese and the Semiotic Mystery“. Eureka, vol. 48, pp. 57-64. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Mathematical Society.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1995). Forward to the Chinese translation of Hofstadter, 1979. Beijing: Commercial Press, forthcoming. Also available in English through the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University, Bloomington.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. and Daniel C. Dennett, eds. (1981). The Mind’s I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul. New York: Basic Books.
Hofstadter, Douglas R., Melanie Mitchell, and Robert M. French (1987). “Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: A Theory and Its Computer Implementation“. Publication #18, Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. and David J. Moser (1989). “To Err is Human; To Study Error-making is Cognitive Science“, in Michigan Quarterly Review, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 185-215.
Hofstadter, Douglas R. et al. (1989). “Synopsis of the Workshop on Humor and Cognition“. Humor, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 417-440.
Holland, John H. (1975). Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Reprinted in 1992 by Bradford Books/MIT Press.
Holland, John H. (1986). “Escaping Brittleness: The Possibilities of General-purpose Learning Algorithms Applied to Parallel Rule-based Systems“. In Michalski, Carbonell, & Mitchell, 1986, pp. 593-623.
Holland, John H. et al. (1986). Induction. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press.
Holyoak, Keith J. and Paul Thagard (1989). “Analogical Mapping by Constraint Satisfaction“. Cognitive Science, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 295-355.

Indurkhya, Bipin (1992). Metaphor and Cognition: An Interactionist Approach. Norwell, MA: Kluwer.

James, William (1890). The Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt.
Johnson-Laird, Philip (1988). “Freedom and Constraint in Creativity“. In R. Sternberg (ed.), The Nature of Creativity, pp. 202-219. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson-Laird, Philip (1989). “Analogy and the Exercise of Creativity“. In S. Vosniadu & A. Ortony (eds.), Similarity and Analogical Reasoning, pp. 313-331. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Kahan, S., T. Pavlidis, and H. Baird (1987). “On the Recognition of Printed Characters of Any Font and Size“. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 274-288.
Kahneman, Daniel and Dale Miller (1986). “Norm Theory: Comparing Reality to Its Alternatives“. Psychological Review, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 136-153.
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Kedar-Cabelli, Smadar (1988a). “Towards a Computational Model of Purpose-Directed Analogy“. In A. Prieditis (ed.), Analogica. Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Kedar-Cabelli, Smadar (1988b). “Analogy — from a Unified Perspective“, In D. H. Helman (ed.), Analogical Reasoning, pp. 65-103. Dordrecht, Holland: Kluwer.
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Laird, John, Paul Rosenbloom, and Allen Newell (1987). “Soar: An Architecture for General Intelligence“. Technical Report #2, Cognitive Science and Machine Intelligence Laboratory, University of Michigan.
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Color Space – Visualizations

Posted on October 21, 2019October 21, 2019 by seanclauson

In support of some work related to color theory and linguistic relativity, I wrote some Python code to create visualizations of the RGB color space. A demo of some of the possible visualizations can be seen below (note, the animated GIF was created using GIMP):

The relevant code follows (Python 3.7):

%matplotlib inline

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d.art3d import Poly3DCollection
import random
import copy

def get_color_verts(r_rng, g_rng, b_rng):
    """
    Given a range in the RGB space, compiles list of vertices to be drawn.
    Used to draw the cubes representing each of the 64 defined colors.
    """
    r_min, r_max = r_rng
    g_min, g_max = g_rng
    b_min, b_max = b_rng
    # In order: r+g wrt-b, r+b wrt-g, g+b wrt-r 
    verts = [[(r_max,g_min,b_min),(r_max,g_max,b_min),(r_min,g_max,b_min),(r_min,g_min,b_min)],
             [(r_max,g_min,b_max),(r_max,g_max,b_max),(r_min,g_max,b_max),(r_min,g_min,b_max)],
             [(r_max,g_min,b_min),(r_max,g_min,b_max),(r_min,g_min,b_max),(r_min,g_min,b_min)],
             [(r_max,g_max,b_min),(r_max,g_max,b_max),(r_min,g_max,b_max),(r_min,g_max,b_min)],
             [(r_min,g_min,b_max),(r_min,g_max,b_max),(r_min,g_max,b_min),(r_min,g_min,b_min)],
             [(r_max,g_min,b_max),(r_max,g_max,b_max),(r_max,g_max,b_min),(r_max,g_min,b_min)]
            ]
    return verts

def get_color_middle(r_rng, g_rng, b_rng):
    """
    Given a range in the RGB space, returns the color represented by the center point of the cube.
    Used to draw the color of a given cube.
    """
    r_min, r_max = r_rng
    g_min, g_max = g_rng
    b_min, b_max = b_rng
    return (((r_min+r_max)/2)/255.0, ((g_min+g_max)/2)/255.0, ((b_min+b_max)/2)/255.0)

def get_random(min_val, max_val):
    return random.randint(min_val, max_val)

def get_random_color(r_rng, g_rng, b_rng):
    """
    Given a range in the RGB space, selects a random point within the cube and returns the associated color.
    Used to draw random points within each shown cube.
    """
    val = [get_random(r_rng[0], r_rng[1]),
           get_random(g_rng[0], g_rng[1]),
           get_random(b_rng[0], b_rng[1])]
    return val

def adjust_points_per_cube(orig, color_list):
    """
    Depending on the number of colors which will be drawn, adjust the number of points shown in each.
    Used to balance performance.
    """
    ret = orig
    if orig == 0:
        if not color_list or len(color_list) > 8:
            ret = 50
        elif len(color_list) == 1:
            ret = 1000
        elif len(color_list) <= 3:
            ret = 500
        elif len(color_list) <= 8:
            ret = 300    
    return ret

def get_filtered_color_list(all_colors, inc_colors):
    ret = []
    if not inc_colors:
        ret = copy.deepcopy(all_colors)
    else:
        for c in all_colors:
            if c["key"] in inc_colors:
                ret.append(c)
    return ret  
       
def set_axis_limits(ax, show_full_grid, color_list):
    """
    Calculates the limits of each axis, depending on which subset of the RGB space is being shown.
    """
    if show_full_grid:
        ax.set(xlim3d = (0, 255), ylim3d = (0, 255), zlim3d = (0, 255))
    else:
        # Get min/max for chart limits (start w/inverse)
        r_min, r_max, g_min, g_max, b_min, b_max = [255, 0, 255, 0, 255, 0]
        for c in color_list:
            r_min = min(r_min, c["r"][0])
            g_min = min(g_min, c["g"][0])
            b_min = min(b_min, c["b"][0])
            r_max = max(r_max, c["r"][1])
            g_max = max(g_max, c["g"][1])
            b_max = max(b_max, c["b"][1])
            # ax.set(xlim3d = (r_min, r_max), ylim3d = (g_min, g_max), zlim3d = (b_min, b_max))
            ax.set(xlim3d = (r_min-5, r_max+5), ylim3d = (g_min-5, g_max+5), zlim3d = (b_min-5, b_max+5))    

def draw_random_points(points_per_cube, color_list):
    for col in color_list:
        for i in range(points_per_cube):
            ci = get_random_color(col["r"], col["g"], col["b"])
            area = (15)**2
            ax.scatter(ci[0], ci[1], ci[2], 
                       color = [ci[0]/255.0, ci[1]/255.0, ci[2]/255.0], 
                       s = area)

def draw_cubes(ax, color_list, hilite_list, cube_alpha, hilite_alpha, edge_color):
    for c in color_list:
        p = Poly3DCollection(get_color_verts(c["r"], c["g"], c["b"]), alpha = cube_alpha)
        p.set_color(get_color_middle(c["r"], c["g"], c["b"]))
        if c["key"] in hilite_list:
            p.set_alpha(hilite_alpha)
        if edge_color:
            p.set_edgecolor(edge_color)
        ax.add_collection3d(p)            
            
def set_axis_tickmarks(ax, x, y, z):
    ax.set_xticks(x)
    ax.set_yticks(y)
    ax.set_zticks(z)
    
def set_axis_ticklabels(ax, x, y, z):
    ax.set_xticklabels(x)
    ax.set_yticklabels(y)
    ax.set_zticklabels(z)    

def create_color_list():
    """
    Creates a list of 64 "colors", by evenly dividing RGB space into 64 equal-sized cubes.
    This is accomplished by dividing each axis (R, G, B) into quarters.
    """
    # NOTE: A 3-character "key" is used to identify each of the 64 cubes. Used in filtering the display.
    keys_ = [["B", "G", "L", "M"],["A", "E", "I", "O"],["R", "S", "T", "V"]]
    rng_ = [[0, 63], [64, 127], [128, 191], [192, 255]]

    colors = []
    for idx_r, rng_r in enumerate(rng_):
        for idx_g, rng_g in enumerate(rng_):
            for idx_b, rng_b in enumerate(rng_):
                color = {}
                color["key"] = "{}{}{}".format(keys_[0][idx_r], keys_[1][idx_g], keys_[2][idx_b])
                color["r"] = rng_r
                color["g"] = rng_g
                color["b"] = rng_b
                colors.append(color)
    
    return colors    
 
colors = create_color_list()

show_boxes = True       # Determines whether surfaces of each defined color cube is drawn.
show_points = True     # Set to True to draw random points of example shades in each selected cube.
points_per_cube = 0     # Number of random shades to draw. Set to 0 to use defaults, which balances for performance.
box_alpha = .1         # Alpha value for all shown colors.
hilite_alpha = 1.0      # Alpha value used for colors found in hilite_cubes list.
edge_color = [0, 0, 0]  # Color used to draw the edges of vertices.
show_full_grid = False   # Setting to False will focus space on just the shown cubes.
color_filter = []       # Keys of colors to be included. Set to empty [] to include all colors.
hilite_cubes = []       # Keys of colors to hilight (will use hilite_alpha value). Ignored if empty [].

points_per_cube = adjust_points_per_cube(points_per_cube, color_filter)

x_colors = []
x_colors = get_filtered_color_list(colors, color_filter)        
            
fig = plt.figure(figsize = [14, 14])
ax = fig.gca(projection = '3d')

set_axis_limits(ax, show_full_grid, x_colors)
ax.set(xlabel = "RED", ylabel = "GREEN", zlabel = "BLUE")

ticks_ = [32, 96, 160, 223]
set_axis_tickmarks(ax, x=ticks_, y=ticks_, z=ticks_)

ticklbl_ = ["1", "2", "3", "4"]
set_axis_ticklabels(ax, x=ticklbl_, y=ticklbl_, z=ticklbl_)
         
if show_points:
    draw_random_points(points_per_cube, x_colors)
    
if show_boxes:
    draw_cubes(ax, x_colors, hilite_cubes, box_alpha, hilite_alpha, edge_color)
    
ax.view_init(45, 45)  

# fig.savefig("demo-1.png", bbox_inches = "tight")

Lorem ipsum

Color Theory & Linguistic Relativity

Posted on October 20, 2019October 20, 2019 by seanclauson

I’ve recently been spending some time better understanding color theory, specifically as it relates to linguistic determinism and relativity. As I feel myself beginning to move away from this area of study, I wanted to document a few notes and observations, in case I wanted to return in the future.

The above video covers mostly notes/observations relevant to color theory and linguistic relativity. I also wanted to document some speculation and theories related to linguistic relativity, which I’ve done in the following video:

NSF, Project Pitch

Posted on October 20, 2019October 20, 2019 by seanclauson

The following project pitch was submitted to the National Science Foundation ‘s (NSF) Seed Fund program on 25-Sep-2019, under the “SBIR: Artificial Intelligence (AI)” Topic Area. The project was subsequently accepted by the relevant NSF Program Director on 19-Oct-2019, resulting in an invitation to submit a full proposal for the NSF SBIR/STTR Phase I program. This invitation is valid for a period of one year, expiring on 19-Oct-2020.

Question #1

Briefly Describe the Technology Innovation.
Up to 500 words describing the technical innovation that would be the focus of a Phase 1 project, including a brief discussion of the origins of the innovation as well as an explanation as to why it meets the program’s mandate to focus on supporting research and development (R&D) of unproven, high-impact innovations.

Significant resources are expended to digitize the physical collections of Cultural Heritage Organizations, and in making these collections widely accessible and useful. The creation of associated metadata is crucial for the usability of each collection, and accounts for a significant portion of total project cost. The creation of metadata accounts for 29% of total digitization costs, with the manual nature of descriptive metadata generation being a major factor.

Despite these expenditures, the metadata found on existing collections is often incomplete, inconsistent and incorrect. Personally, this became obvious while attempting to advance a research project by leveraging some of these collections, only to be frustrated by sparse and non-standard metadata. Following this experience, I resolved to better understand and attempt to address the underlying problems.

This project aims at significantly reducing the digitization costs of cultural heritage collections, while simultaneously improving their usefulness. I believe this is attainable via the novel application of soft computing techniques, toward the following objectives:

The automated generation of descriptive metadata aligned with widely used taxonomies.
The temporal and spatial labeling of unidentified documents.
The automated detection of errors in existing descriptive metadata.

At its core, the solution involves training a collection of classification models to recognize specific attributes of documents, covering both subject matter (e.g., “portrait”) and format (e.g., “daguerreotype”). Each classification model would be treated as a “membership function” defining the fuzzy set of documents containing that attribute.

For metadata generation, we associate each membership function with the relevant node of a standard taxonomy, for example, the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH). A given document would then receive the taxonomical tags associated with each set to which it belongs. As an example, any document found to be a member of the “daguerreotype” set, would receive the LCSH tag “sh85035408”, which covers daguerreotypes.

A subset of our membership functions will define “temporally differentiable” attributes. That is to say that a document’s membership in these sets tells us something about when the document was created. With these membership functions, and a large pre-labeled dataset, we can construct temporal histograms reflecting the historical distribution of each attribute. A similar approach can be taken to understand spatio-temporal distributions, as appropriate.

These distributions can be used both to make predictions of unidentified documents (as documents will likely abide by the observed distributions), and to uncover potentially incorrect metadata via outlier identification. The specificity of our predictions can be increased by combining the distributions of multiple attributes, and by “breaking” attributes into more-specific categories.

Though some relevant research has been conducted into the application of similar techniques to subsets of this problem (e.g., the temporal identification of color photographs) it appears that little effort has been applied to the practical, systematic application of these techniques to meet the specific requirements of this domain. Given this, and the potential value of a practical solution, this is believed to be a worthy area of investment.

Question #2

Briefly Describe the Technical Objectives and Challenges.
Up to 500 words describing the R&D or technical work to be done in a Phase I project, including a discussion of how and why the proposed work will help prove that the product or service is technically feasible and/or significantly reduces technical risk. Discuss how, ultimately, this work could contribute to making the new product, service, or process commercially viable and impactful. This section should also convey that the proposed work meets definition of R&D, rather than straightforward engineering or incremental product development tasks.

It is believed that a successful phase 1 implementation can be limited in scope to processing photographs in batch, but should demonstrate an ability to:

Automatically generate taxonomical tags for a representative set of descriptive metadata attributes.
Make reasonable, evidence-based temporal predictions of items.
Identify items which may have incorrect temporal metadata labels.

By proving these capabilities, we can demonstrate an approach to reducing the costs associated with manually creating new metadata, as well as an approach to improve the quality of existing metadata. With this promise, it is believed that we can encourage the participation of a number of target customers, whose engagement will be vital in helping guide a solution toward product-market fit.

The work involved in demonstrating these capabilities can coarsely be categorized as follows:

Acquire a relatively large labeled dataset of historic photographs.
Select a representative set of metadata attributes.
Train membership functions for each of the selected attributes.
Develop a process for automatically generating a list of taxonomical metadata labels based on set membership.
Develop a process for automatically predicting temporal labels based on set membership.
Develop a process for discovering erroneous labels by identifying temporal outliers.

It is generally understood that progress in soft computing is constrained by the availability of labeled data. Though some relevant research appears to have been affected by this constraint, it is not believed to be a significant impediment to our progress. This is due to the efforts of a handful of organizations focused on the aggregation and standardization of the metadata associated with many relevant digital collections, for example, the Digital Public Library of America (DPLA). Their work largely eliminates the risk that would otherwise be inherent in #1 (above).

Therefore, based on current understanding, it is believed that most of our technical risk lies in items #3, #5, and #6.

Regarding the training of membership functions, it is unknown to what extent this will require the use of fine-grained classification techniques. Given the relative immaturity of proven fine-grained techniques (as compared to coarse-grained approaches) this may require additional work to assess and implement an effective solution.

Regarding the prediction of temporal labels, there exists limited relevant research and no known practical implementations. Though we believe the use of observed distributions, in combination with approaches outlined by prior research efforts, will result in a viable solution, a rigorous empirical assessment of the approach is warranted. Given the availability an existing labeled dataset, such an assessment appears feasible.

Technically, the automatic identification of erroneous labels is closely tied to the work of predicting temporal labels, and shares much of the same technical risk. The quantitative assessment of the approach, though, appears less obvious, and may require coordination with the publishing organizations for confirmation.

Given the study required, and the novel application of emerging techniques within this domain, the described work appears well aligned with the NSF’s stated R&D requirements.

Question #3

Briefly Describe the Market Opportunity.
Up to 250 words describing the customer profile and pain point(s) that will be the near-term commercial focus related to this technical project.

The initial customer focus includes organizations involved in the digitization or aggregation of cultural heritage collections:

Cultural Heritage Organizations (CHOs), including libraries, museums, archives, and historical societies.
Aggregation Organizations, e.g., the Digital Public Library of America (DPLA).
Digitization Service Organizations, e.g., Everpresent, and Backstage Library Works.

Digitization projects include significant manual effort related to the curation of descriptive metadata. Requirements for this curation process are typically defined by the publishing organization, though work can fall to any of the listed organization types, depending on the structure of the project.

The inherent manual effort of this process leads to higher costs and potential errors. Given the constrained budgets of these projects, this represents the significant pain point we hope to address.

In estimating the number of CHOs in the US, we determine there to be roughly:

9,000 public libraries.
3,000 academic libraries.
5,000 historical societies and preservation offices.

Though a full picture of digitization project expenditures is unclear, grants awarded by the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and the Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR) is instructive:

NEH awarded $230,000,000 from 2008-2017, initiated by their related divisions (the offices of Preservation and Access, and Digital Humanities).
CLIR has awarded $4,000,000 annually since 2015, as part of their Digitizing Hidden Collections program.

Though not part of our initial focus, we believe that opportunity may also exist with international CHOs, collection management software (CMS) providers, and non-CHO archives.